Lecture Delivered by James Beighton, with notes from the presenatation, and my own interpretation.
Areas for consideration throughout this lecture:
*The origins of Graphic Design
*Graphic Design in relation to Fine Art
*Graphic Design in relation to Advertising
*Graphic Design as a tool of Capitalism
*Graphic Design as a political tool
*Graphic Design and postmodernism
*Graphic Design and social conscience
Cave painting in Lascaux, France, dating c. 15,000- 10,000BC.
The origins of Graphic Design show people documenting and visually communicating from the very beginning of time and human existance- even when they were illiterate, with no glimmer of educational state. This cave painting in Lascaux dates back from 17,000 years ago.
Giotto di Bondone, Betrayal, c.1305, Fresco, Arena Chapel, Padua, Italy.
Fine and classical art was particularly prominent at this time, and was found most commonly to visually illustrate a message or meaning. History suggests that artisist depicted their love of God through religious symbolism and imagery, though, in reality, works like these were most likely commissioned.
This painting depicts the biblical story of 'The Betryal' with Jesus Christ, of course, as the central character. Despite of course knowing that Jesus was born and raised in Palestine, he was often depicted as a middle-class man, with blonde hair and blue eyes- portaying him as a higher class, and of apparent status.
John Everett Millais, Bubbles, 1886, Pear's Soap advertisement.
As advertisement and consumerism came more commonplace with branding through the developments towards modernity and industrialisation, fine art made a distinct change into signs of graphic design and advertisement. although not modern by today's standards, the introduction of typography in fine art paintings (in particular) blurred the lines between what was considered classic and modern in the ways of fine art and design.
Introduction of the term 'Graphic Design'
1922, William Addison Dwiggins (successful designer):
'In the matter of layout forget art and the start and use horse-sense. The printing-designer's whole duty is to make a clear presentation of the message- to get the important statements forward and the minor parts placed so that they will not be overlooked. This calls for an exercise of common sense and a faculty for analysis rather than for art.'
The statement above was believed to have been one of the first quotations regarding the practice of graphic design- still relatively new in the history of art, with modernist route and ideals.
Herbet Spencer: 'Mechanized art'
Max Bill and Josef Muller-Brockman: 'Visual Communication'
Richard Hollis: 'Graphic Design is the business of making or choosing marks and arranging them on a surface to convey an idea.'
Paul Rand: 'Graphic design, in the end, deals with the spectator, and because it is the goal of the designer to be persuassive, or at least informative, it follows that the designer's problems are twofold: to anticipate the spectator's reactions and to meet his own aesthetic needs.'
Again, the above quotations were a direct response or view in relation to the graphic design practice. In summary, it was understood that graphics was, and has always, been about the message, in true modernist style- "form follows function."
'Whatever the information transmitted, it must,ethically and culturally, reflects it's responsibility to society.'- Josef Muller-Brockman
'Although graphic design as we know it originated in the late nighteenth century as a tool for advertising, any, assosciation today with marketing, advertising, or capitalism deeply undermines the graphic designer's self-image. Graphic design history is an integral part of advertising history, yet in most accountants of graphic design's origins advertising is virtually denied, or hidden behind more benign such as "publicity" and "promotion". This omission not only limits the discourse, but also misrepresents the facts. It is time for graphics design historians, and designers generally, to remove the elitist prejudices that have perpretuated a biased history'.
-Steven Heller, Eye, No. 17, 1995, reprinted in Beirut, M., Drenttel, W.,Heller, S. and Holland, D.K (eds.), (1997), Looking Closer 2, New York, Allworth Press, pages 112-119.
This quote, from Steven Heller tells of the period in which graphic designers desperately persued emancipation from links with advertising, despite the fact that they so often go hand-in-hand.
Edouard Manet (1832-83), 'A Bar at the Folies Bergeres, 1882'.
Modernist paintings were an influence for graphic design, and this was often reflected in their new aesthetics and techniques- both commonly sharing the link of depicting modern life.
Designs by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec c. 1890's
Graphic design emerges from modernism, adertising events and new leisure activities that the movement bought. A move away from fine art with the addition of typography and a new consideration for composition and layout.
Alphonse Mucha, 'job' c. 1898, poster for cigarette papers.
Art Deco and Art Noveau was a big movement around this time, along with decorative design through arts and crafts. Again, fine art plays a big part of design- the line between advertising and fine art is very fine.
The new avante-garde (yet still very decorative) design styles focused upon composition and layout- the distinction between fine art and graphics becomes steadily greater and more distinguished.
There certainly is an increase in graphic aesthetics and visual communication through Europe, however, Britain still remains reasonably conservative, not emerging at the same "cutting edge standard" as countries such as Russia and Germany until around 1960-1970.
Savile Lumley, 'Daddy, What did YOU do in the Great War?' c. 1915, poster.
This poster was massively influentual in the war effort. Again, this shows the conservative nature of Britain at this time- with a blend of fix art and graphic typography- still quite a classic design in comparison to many other parts of Europe in the midst of modernist states.
Andrew Leete, Britons [Kitchener] wants you!
1914, poster (left), James Montgomery Flagg,
I want you for U.S Army, 1917, poster.
Graphic design really comes into play in Britain and the U.S during the war effort (as aforementioned), both depict traditional and patriotic messages, as well as very similar in style. This visual communication can easily be interpreted, not just in the particular countries, but globally.
Germany was increasingly becoming more industrious and this was reflected in the Bauhaus period of graphic design, along with Russia, this was certainly an era and country of design to be reckoned with!
Wassily Kandinsky (1886-1944), Composition VIII, 1923.
Fine Art was increasingly being pushed towards methods of abstraction- Wassily Kandisky (a Russian artists living in Germany, who taught in the Bauhaus) was one of the founders of expressionist abstraction at this time.
Lissitzky, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, c.1919, poster.
This was a defining abstract image of the times in Russia- the geometric poster depicted the Russian Bolsevihks fighting against the white army heirarchical government- this was considered very forward in expressionism, yet it was still easily communicated to the masses, and even the 60% of Russians who were classed as illterate at this time- bold and direct- exactly what graphic design should be.
F.H. Stingemore (UK), London Underground Map ,1931-1932.
This was the first time in Britain that graphic design really took off and developed from it's more classical fine art roots, as F.H Stingemore designs the first London underground tube map.
Henry C. (Harry) Beck (UK), London Underground Map, 1933.
Harry Beck updates this a year later with a more technical, colour-co-ordinated layout.
Again, after Harry Beck, the map takes subtle changes, yet they really improve the clarity and visual communication of the design. The underground map is now representative of designs the world over, and globally recognised, with very little change in the past seventy years- a brilliant example of the effect that good graphic design can have.
Simon Patterson (1967-), The Great Bear, lithograph on paper.
The "adaption" of the original design of the underground map, developed by Simon Patterson showing a "constellation of stars", each celeberity represented on a different tube line, each with a certain, specific connection, in a witty commentary.
This is a great example of just how much graphic design is influenced by social change and politics- the underground map, once used as a tool to guide the city workers, and now a mockery of the culture of celebrity, and the obession that it brings in modern day.
Oskar Schlemmer (German), Bauhaus logo, 1922.
The Bauhaus art school in Germany, setting the rules for graphic design within Europe, and all over the world.
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy (Russian), Painting Photography Film, 1925, book cover.
The Bauhaus movement and the graduates of it's school were famed practitioners, including Moholy-Nagy, a key artist and photographer working in the school.
Herbert Bayer (German), Kandinsky 60th birthday exhibition, 1926, poster.
This poster design for Kandinksy's 60th birthday exhibition really reflected his own work, and that of the Bauhuas- angular, clean and cutting edge.
Piet Zwart (Dutch) Het boek van PTT, 1938 (Dutch telephone service book).
Other countries were certainly taking influence from the development of graphic design that germany and the bauhaus bought. This Dutch telephone service book with collage, angular composition and design has clear industrial influence, but with the country's own character.
Herbert Matter (Swiss), Swiss Tourist Board, c. 1932-34, posters.
Swiss graphic design was also really developing and making it's mark at this time- and is still considered to be one of the leaders of the practice of graphic design to this day.
A.M. Cassandre (French), L'Intransigeant, 1925, newspaper poster.
Cassandre was one of the key designers of this time, where abstracted imagery represents design.
A.M Cassandre (French), Etoile du Nord, 1927, poster.
This poster advertised a railway line from Paris-Brussels-Amsterdam, this was visually representative, yet still very sleek and abstractive- Cassandre was a brilliant example of how informative design can easily be combined with aesthetic beauty.
Tom Purvis (UK), LNER, 1937, poster.
Ten years on, British design is still generally quite conservative and focused on the practice of fine art.
Ludwig Hohlwein (German) Reichs Sports Day for the Association of German Girls, 1934, poster.
Ludwig Hohlwein (German) Degenerate Art, 1936, exhibition poster.
In the dictatorship of Germany under Hitler, social realism was replacing the modernism of the Bauhaus in his classic tastes and principles.
Degenerate Art was an exhibition in which Adolf Hitler selected modernist art to highlight "all that was wrong with modern art", the irony, and the paradox, of course, being that the exhibition poster was in the typical modern style.
Hans Scheleger (German, working in the UK) Eat Greens For Health, 1942, poster.
Scheleger was a German designer, working in the UK. His design was understated and low-key, promoting good health in the war, and introducing a modern aesthetic to the still reasonably conservative designs of the country at that time.
Josep Renau, (Spanish) Industry of War, 1936.
Graphic design became an "underground" practice at this time- it was a manual but effective practice in method and technique, but, most importantly, it was intended to promote and communicate a message.
Josep Renau (Spanish), Stalingrad: The New Star of Freedom
Aesthetic has been replicated through graphics, advertising began to utilise this, and is continued still today.
Pere Catala i Pic (Spanish), Let's Squash Fascism, 1936.
This is a great example of graphics when text or typography is not always necessary- sometimes, infact, it can detract from the delivery of the message, as I believe it would do in this image's circumstance.
Abram Games, catalogue for 'Exhibition of Science', Festival of Britain, 1951.
Poster created during WWII, celebrating the end of the War, and new social wellbeing. A celebration of what it means to be British, and crammed with patriotic symbolism, however, the design is still relatively conservative. Abram Games was considered one of the most influentual designers in Britain during this time.
Paul Rand, advert for Jacqueline Cochran, 1946.
A new commerical outlook for graphic design emerges- and the fine line between itself and advertisement blends. Paul Rand is considered to be one of the key American designers of this time.
An economic boom and prosperity throughout the country was promoted and reflected in design, and thus begun the "golden age" of advertising.
Hlemut Krone for Doyle Dane Berbach, Think Small, advert for Volkswagen, 1959.
Minimalism and negative space becomes a distinct VW aesthetic- instantly recognisable and distinctive, a true example of effective graphics which transcends time and fashions.
The design effectively continues through the decades.
If you place a strong image or idea into the public conciousness, gradually they begin to recognise and associate this symbol, thus creating effective branding through graphic design and advertising.
Saul Bass, poster for The Man with the Golden Arm, 1955.
Saul Bass, poster for Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo, 1958.
Saul Bass, title graphics for Anatomy of a Murder, 1959.
Another example of branding design- these series of Hitchcock's film posters are iconic, and almost as recognisable as the films themselves.
Paul Rand, logo for American Broadcasting Company, 1962.
Paul Rand, poster for IBM, 1970.
Paul Rand created some bold, creative and effective examples of commercial graphic design, working with creative, yet simple techniques in the complex world of corporate commercialism.
"We have been bombareded with publications devoted to this belief, applauding the work of those who have flogged their skil and imagination to sell such things as: cat food, stomach powders, detergent, hair restorer, striped toothpaste, aftershave lotion, beforeshave lotion, slimming diets, fattening drinks, deodernats, fizzy water, cigarettes, roll-ons, pull-ons and slip-ons..."- Ken Garland, First Things First Manifesto, 1964.
Ken Garland was a British designer who had a great view against the opinion that "there's more to life than being part of a consumerist society", and wanted to do something with more social conscious.
F.H.K. Henrion, Stop Nuclear Suicide poster, 1960.
Social concious did indeed play a big part in visual communication and graphic design in Britain throughout the 1960's in the height of fears of the threat of nuclear war, whereupon this poster was created as a reaction to stop British disarmented, a logo which we now associate with peace, with the skull image representative of the nuclear bomber.
Seymour Chwast/Push Pin Studio, End Bad Breath Poster, 1968.
This image, by Seymour Chwast represents the Vietnam war, Uncle Sam, the symbol of true American patriocism, with 1352 bombers in his mouth, with the war "leaving a bad taste in your mouth", depicting a profound message, perhaps even leaving the viewer questioning mortality and political reasoning of the war.
Art Workers Coalition, Q. And babies? A. And Babies, 1970.
Another example of how image and text work in harmony with one another- does it need the text? or does this enhance it?
The text comes from a transcription of an order from a platoon of soldiers, with a very strong anti- war statement, links between the text and image make this hard to distinguish- is it photography, or is it graphic design?
Hipgnosis, 10CC, Deceptive Bends sleeve design, 1977.
Hippy movement transforms the abstract nature of graphic design...an era of music when then transforms into prog rock...
Jamie Reid, Sex Pistols, Never Mind the Bollocks...sleeve design, 1977.
A real backlash in general attitude, culture, and design with the introduction of the punk rock era to music- cut and paste aesthetic of design reflective of the fashion of the time- full of "DIY style" with rips and tears.
Peter Saville, FAC 001, The Factory Club Night Poster.
The very first poster design for Factory records, created by Peter Savile whilst studying at Manchester Polytechnic (now Manchester Metropolitan), and, in typical student fashion, he produced the poster two days after the event took place! Which, ironically, was perfectly suited to the factory's relaxed ideals!
Peter Saville, New Order, Blue Monday, sleeve design, 1983.
The best selling 12" ever made- constructed with a very elaborate folded design- expensive to make, therefore, and the band actually lost 30p per copy sold!
This design showed a move into postmodernity- was packaging and form more important than the product?
Neville Brody, The Face magazine covers, 1980's.
Brody was a key figure in post modernism, revolutionising type-settings and composition.
David Carson, Ray Gun, double page spread.
In America, the same influence and movement of design is occuring. There were many links with the "grunge" movement of Europe, but also very innovative in "graphic design for graphic design's sake"- post-modernity was perhaps a little over-the-top at this time, with far more consideration in aesthetics than informing.
David Carson, Don't mistake legibility for communication
The "rules" of graphic design were really being manipulated and tested around this age of experimentation of form in postmodernity, David Carson asks, are legibility and communication the same thing?
Public Image Limited, album, sleeve design, 1986
Public Image Limited, compact disc, cd packaging, 1986.
John Lydon's band- with the fallout of the sex pistols they reflect upon commercialism, industry and politics and focus on the music as oppossed to "the image", yet still a very bold design- perhaps undermining advertising and branding in a mocking simplicity.
Peter Blake, Band Aid, Do the know it's Christmas?, 1984. Original record collage cover for the charity single.
Chumbawamba, Pictures of Starving Children Sell Records, 1986.
Political band- very knowing of what graphic design and advertising can do to publicise, in this mocking, question of "charity".
Designers Republic, Pop Will Eat Itself, Ich bin ein auslander, sleeve design, 1994.
Designers Republic are considered a very important design company- breaking away from the traditions of "only finding sucess in London", they moved, but came back to their hometown of Sheffield, and made a huge impact on design in their city.
Julian House (For Intro), Primal Scream, Xtrmntr, sleeve design, 2000.
Cut-and-paste graphic design develops around this time- a revival of 1960's/70's "DIY" style.
Mark Farrow (Farrow Design), Spirtiulaized, LAdies and Gentlemen we are floating in space, CD packaging, 1997.
Post-modernist in graphic design- the product packaging, once more, became as collectable as the product itself.
The design reflected social lifestyle and cultural change- the pshycadellic drug-fuelled lifestyle represented by the "tablet" vector design.
Mark Farrow (Farrow Design), Spiritualized, Ladies and Gentlemen we are floating in space, limited edition CD packaging 1997.
Each of the tablets were the size of a CD- this collectable product existed in itself- CD or no CD.
The Coup, Party Music, withdrawn CD cover, 2001.
Taken before the incidents of 9/11 (the event happened two years after this CD cover was published)- this image has an uncanny, frightening resemblence to the events of the day, and, of course, had to be withdrawn from shelves after 9/11.
The image was produced to represent the white American higher-class domination being over-ruled and destroyed.
In 2001, Primal Scream had a lyric in a song "bomb the pentagon" which had to be censored- the band was "damned if they do/damned if they don't"- they could easily have been seen to be "selling themselves out" as well as being considered unsensitive to the event.
Time magazine cover, September 14th 2001.
Jonathan Barnbrook, Bastard Typeface, 1990.
Design took great influence from the past around this time, with Jonathan Barnbrook creating a gothic German inspired typeface named "Bastard"- reflecting upon Nazi propaganda typography used on their imagery and design during the War.
Jonathan Barnbrook, Olympukes
A graphic representatioon of imagery. Olympics is a "cash cow"- the imagery can be taken from two different views as to what he is portraying- a serious awarenesss, or personal distaste?
"Quite understandably, the people behing these campaigns have come to think of themselves as cultural philosophers, spiritual guides, artists, even political leaders. For instance, Benetton, rather than using it's ads to extol the virtues of it's clothing opted to communication what Oliviero Toscani believed to be the fundamental truth about the injustice of capital punishment according to the company's communication policy, Benetton believs that it is important for companies to take a stance in the real world instead of using their advertising budget to perpetuate the myth that they can make consumers happy through the mere purchase of their product"- Naomi Klein, Truth in Advertising, 2000 (in Looking Closer 4, page 64).
As graphic design became more contreversial and experimental, there were many mixed opinions of the practice- often leading to writings of a subjective, biased nature.
Oliviero Toscani, Benetton adverts, 1992.
Toscani goes against traditional advertising methods to create multi-cultural, racial and provocative imagery.
The images at the time were very contreversial- the bottom depiciting a Catholic family with a dying AIDS sufferer with an uncanny resemblence to Jesus Christ- a liking of which not many approved of.
"It seems like a nobal goal, yet Benetton's political branding campaigns implicitly promise cutsomers a happiness of another sort- not just beauty, status or style, the traditional claims fashion companies make, but virtue and engagement. And that's where the problems arise, because this claim is simply not true. Benetton's clothing has nothing to do with AIDS or way or the lives of prisoners on death rowm and by using these issues in sweater advertisements, Benetton is inserting a layer of distance and mediation- represented by the Benetton name itself- between consumers and these important issues". - Naomi Klein, Truth in Advertising, 2000 (in Looking Closer 4, page 64).
Barabara Kruger, I shop therefore I am, 1987.
Barbara Kruger/Selfridges, I shop therefore I am, 2006.
Barbara Kruger is a fine artist with a post-modernist view of consumer culture, what forms our identity today? Buy collaborating with Selfridges twenty years on, is she mocking the consumer, or simply "selling out"?
Graphic design has transformed in through the decades, yet it's principals are still the same- "solving a problem" through visual communication.
